So too in Japan. Traditionally, culture in Japan has focused more on the group than on the individual person. It is the functioning within the group that primarily defines the Japanese individual. This is closely linked to perhaps one of the most concepts in Japanese culture: the preservation of harmony, known as wa.

This may be changing as Japanese youngsters readily adopt a more Western lifestyle, but it still goes a long way in defining the Japanese cultural identity. The emphasis on harmony and groupism that we find in Japanese culture has their reflection in the Japanese legal system. Preservation of harmony is not served well by attributing guilt. That makes Japan less of a lawyer-oriented culture than we may be used to in Europe and North America.

After World War II, Japan was guided by the strong hand of the Allies into a rigorously reforming their constitution and legal system. Especially the Japanese constitution seems the spitting image to the one of the United States of America, with the same famous rights to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”. In practice, the similarities often disappear. Where the judicial system in the Western hemisphere places much importance on precedence, in Japan legal technicalities are not as important as the pursuit of harmony and two decision may well be inconsistent.

Legal protection of personal data in Japan is quite a new phenomenon. For most of history, people in Japan had quite willingly informed the Government of what they wished to know, but with the rise of computerization and aggressive use by direct-mail companies gradually raised the issue that privacy needed to be protected. When the OECD urgently recommended legal protection of personal information in 1980, Japan started a process towards the development of a personal data protection law, albeit reluctant to protect data at the risk of hampering administrative efficiency. This resulted in the Act for Protection of Computer Processed Personal Data held by Administrative Organs, which was promulgated in December 1988. “This law was drafted not so much because of public opinion as because of pressures of international society”, writes Tsuyoshi Hiramatsu in a juridical journal in 1990. As a law, it lacked a bit in clarity. Language was vague and no limitations to gathering data were set. Also, there was no responsibility placed on the agencies holding the data.

A new law made up for a lot of the shortcomings, though. Four years ago, in 2003, the Personal Information Protection Law has come into effect in Japan, which markedly improves on the existing legislation. In summary, this law regulates the handling of information by the private sector. It requires firms to notify the individuals concerned of the purpose for which the data will be used, maintain accuracy of the data and keep the data secure. Individuals are always to be allowed access to their personal information.

The law is quite clear though, that only personal data are protected. That is, data specifically attributable to an individual. So, RFID related databases will often go uncovered. Imagine this, for example: you wear a pacemaker that has an RFID chip that records the functioning of your pacemaker so your doctor can see if all goes well. This chip does not necessarily contain personal data, but one can nevertheless associate the chip with you, for you’ll wear it all the time. How to deal with these kind of data then?

For this purpose, the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) together with the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC) have jointly created guidelines for privacy protection on electronic tags, which were published in 2004. The legal status of these guidelines is unclear to me. Their purpose is more to help businesses by giving them an idea of the issues raised by RFID and the inform them of opinions of the ministries regarding these issues. These guidelines mostly address the obligation of firms to notify consumers of the use of tags and the obligation to allow for consumers to deactivate tags. With regard to the databases on information gathered by the tags, these guidelines refer to the aforementioned law for the protection of personal information.

So our pacemaker scenario is not yet solved! I’ll keep you informed as I learn more about this.

Recently I made up for it, though. I tried to treat myself to the real deal: a Suica, associated with a credit card that automatically tops up my credit when it gets too low. The ultimate in convenience. But, the ultimate in self-exposure at the same time.

By completing the application form, JR East knows neigh everything about me: my personal details and home address. My work address, including my function, place in the organization and the time I’ve been working here. An estimate of my monthly wages. My debts, if any. The account number of credit cards already issued to me.
I felt somewhat naked. The only things that are still private to me are my political affiliation and the size of my … *ehhrrm* feet.

In the end, however, it turned out not to be easy for foreigners to apply for this service. First, I need to get a registered Japanese bank account, even though I have a credit card already. And even then, there’s a big chance that I’ll be refused on account of staying here for but four months. That makes JR East nervous. For how will they be able to redeem their losses if, after I leave, it turns out that I’m not good for the credit?

So, I decided to settle for an anonymous card from a vending machine for now. But I’m not giving up this easily. The JR East credit card might be out of reach, another appealing option is still open: the Mobile Suica. Practically all new mobile phones in Japan contain a FeliCa chip, which is the exact same chip that the plastic Suica and Pasmo cards rely on. This will have to wait for another week until my paperwork is processed and I can identify myself as a legal alien. Getting a mobile is a bit of a hassle in Japan. Strict rules have been introduced after a lot of people fraudulently used their phones.

As for my first experiences with Suica: it suits me just fine. It works well and reliably. I can top up my stored credits also at Pasmo machines. I bought a few cans of lager at a shop brandishing the Pasmo logo. So far, all signals point towards full interoperablility of the two systems.

There are some cards still available, but they are only to be sold to people buying a so-called commuter pass: a term ticket with a reduced price for a specified itinerary.
For those of us wanting an open Pasmo: we’ll have to hold our breath until July, when the first additional batch of a million cards becomes available, reports Nikkei News.

So, how could this have happened?

The Pasmo group had not anticipated so many people already having a Suica to get Pasmo as well. According to an analysis by said group, the main reason for Suica owners to buy an additional Pasmo was a lack of understanding. A lot of people simply didn’t seem to know that the cards are entirely interchangeable. Another reason for the unforeseen popularity was the number of visitors to the Tokyo metropolitan area to get one as a souvenir.

A quick round with my Japanese colleagues painted a somewhat richer picture. “The Japanese just go crazy for new things” was the most heard argument in my entirely non-representative survey. People bought Pasmo just for the sake of having one. And while there is some uncertainty about the interoperability (for example: can one use both systems to pay at shops that only brandish the logo of only one of them? Or: can one buy a commuter pass for a JR East operated line with Pasmo and vice versa?), awareness that Suica can also be used on the lines operated by the firms joined in the Pasmo group seems quite high.

No matter how successful Pasmo might seem: the big winner is JR East. The sale of Suica cards and the amount of transactions in shops using Suica have skyrocketed with the introduction of Pasmo. The daily issuance of cards has more than doubled since March 18^th. With sales of Pasmo come to a halt, sales of Suica are likely to accelerate even more. And JR East even makes money from Pasmo. When people use their Pasmo in shops, JR East charges handling fees.

The future smiles on JR East.

Japan, under the guiding hand of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), is trying hard to create a ubiquitous society. That is, an environment in which anyone can access all kinds of information at any time, anywhere. Click here for the vision of the MIC. Do click! It’s quite entertaining.

RFID technology is projected to play a leading role in the realisation of this ubiquitous vision. Compared to the RFID passes for public transport, this case is interesting since it turns the table in terms of who controls the information. With Pasmo and Suica, we hold the tags. And in doing so, every time we pass a reader we add some data to the big databases maintained by the public transport providers. In the case of ubiquitous networks, the tags are placed in the landscape and we carry around the reader. So potentially (but this is largely dependant on the configuration of the network) we are the ones building a database of information to our liking, while passing through life relatively anonymously.

In the Ginza case however, it is quite likely that a central database logs your movement all the same. The chips embedded in the landscape only emit a code. The handheld, upon receiving the code, subsequently connects to the internet to download the data corresponding to that code. It seems likely that all communications between tags, readers and the information database will be filed. We are very curious to find out more about this project and others like it. Who controls the databases of user movements? And what are they used for? To whom will access be granted? Will the police demand access to track down (potential) wrongdoers? Will access be sold to the highest bidder for marketing purposes?

Interesting stuff, huh? I knew you’d like it.

Japanese railway corporation JR East is the world’s largest people mover. The company gets 16 million people from A to B on a daily basis. As a way to increase station capacity and enhance customer convenience they introduced Suica, a prepaid IC card taking away the necessary chore of buying tickets, in 2001. This card uses RFID technology. When you enter the station and pass through the gates, your card will remember. When you arrive at your destination, your fare will be calculated and withdrawn automatically. Besides, you can use your Suica pay in some 4000 shops. And there are even some companies, like Hitachi, that use Suica as an entrance card for their offices.

Five years later, after the system proved to catch on like a house on fire, JR East introduced the Mobile Suica. Developed in conjunction with Japan’s number one telecom firm, NTT DoCoMo, the chip that provides the Suica service is now embedded in your mobile. So no need for a card anymore: your ticket is paid for by your phone. With more than 20 million cards sold at present, Suica has become a big business to JR East which plans to expand the system’s functionality.

In March 2007, a collective of public transport companies (bus, subway and train) in the Tokyo Metropolitan area issued their version of Suica, called Pasmo. This card offers access to the transport services of about sixty companies in Tokyo and surrounding prefectures. It can also be used on some 6000 taxis in the Tokyo area, which is around 10% of the taxis driving around town.

Both systems are interoperable, meaning that one can travel on the JR trains with Pasmo, buy stuff at shops and vending machines with the Suica logo with it. And the other way around: with a Suica, one can also use the services showing the Pasmo logo.

So obviously, the big gain from a consumer perspective is convenience through the integration of different functions. We are very curious to find out what this looks like from the provider’s point of view. Who controls the databases where all the data on card use, passenger preferences and travel patterns are stored? Is access to these databases sold to third parties? What are the data being used for? Do any consumers or organizations perceive the storage of these data as an infringement of their privacy?

Let’s find out!

This is it, then. The first week of work drawing to a close. High time to introduce you to the project, its scope and its partners.

What’s going on?
RFID (for Radio Frequency Identification) is a hot topic. At least, for policy makers and ICT businesses. Just in case your IT-acronyms are a little rusty: RFID is a set of technologies allowing the remote reading of data stored on chips. For a comprehensive introduction to RFID, follow this link.
Ideal for streamlining logistic processes and inventory management, replacing the bar code. But its possibilities for application are much, much wider. Think of prepaid-cards for public transportation that automatically communicate with your bank account when stored credits are running low, automated messages sent to parents whose kids walk through the school door and chips in the sidewalk communicating with the cane of a blind man, telling him where to go. Science fiction? Think again…

Introducing the project

Public opinion regarding RFID is fickle: as we’re generally not well informed, we might well go along with the RFID proponents for quite a while. And then, all of a sudden, we might panic for fear of an Orwellian society.

Still, RFID is introduced in more and more occasions, also in the Netherlands. The soon to be introduced IC-card for public transportation, the OV-chipkaart, contains an RFID tag. As does the new passport containing biometric features. 

Still, public debate tends to focus more on what is theoretically possible then on what is happening in practice.

To fill this gap, we look to the east. Japan has seen the successful introduction of many an RFID application over the last years. An excellent opportunity for us to learn. The coming four months I will strive towards painting a picture of how millions of Japanese use RFID to facilitate their daily lives. This research will focus on three issues, mainly. First is the policy envirnment concerning RFID and the perception of the convenience-privacy trade-off. Second and third are case studies into IC-cards for public transportation (like Suica and Pasmo) and the Tokyo Ubiquitous Technology Project respectively. As time goes by, I will post the results of my research on this site.

The Masterminds
This research project is a joint initiative of the Rathenau Instituut and the Netherlands Office of Science and Technology at the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The former being the Dutch institute for technology assessment whose task is informing the Dutch Parliament on new technologies and their possible role in society. The latter trying to stimulate knowledge and technology transfer between The Netherlands and Japan. Please refer to the Blogroll section to the right of this page for links to the websites of both organisations.

Trust me when I tell you I had no trouble sleeping that night.

Waking up refreshed, I was in for my first rice-and-fish-soup breakfast ever. And then: off to play the tourist (which, of course, I am). Being just in time to see the cherry blossom in full bloom, I joined in at the all-time favourite of hanami: admiring the flowers. In Japanese tradition, the cherry blossom signifies the transience of beauty. And transient it is, as the delicate flowers last for but a week. Many people here take days off to enjoy the flowers while they last. Days off being a scarce commodity here, it is important that the period of bloom is forecast accurately. Nature being what it is, this is not always possible. Like this year, leading to public apologies on national television by officials of the Meteorological Agency.Armed with a camera the size of your average bazooka, the Japanese who did manage to get some free time, try and capture the essence of that fleeting beauty, saving it for posterity. A beautiful contradiction.